PART I. THE NAPOLEONIC ERA The Beginning of Political Caricature 1 Hogarth and his Times 12 James Gillray 19 Bonaparte As First Consul 28 The Emperor at his Apogee 35 Napoleon's Waning Power 44 PART II. FROM WATERLOO THROUGH THE CRIMEAN WAR After the Downfall 57 The "Poire" 65 The Baiting of Louis-Phillipe 73 Mayeux and Robert Macaire 90 From Cruikshank to Leech 97 The Beginning of Punch 101 Retrospective 111 '48 and the Coup d'état 119 The Struggle in the Crimea 128 PART III. THE CIVIL AND FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WARS The Mexican War and Slavery 143 Neglected Opportunities 159 The South Secedes 166 The Four Years' Struggle 175 Nations and Men in Caricature 188 The Outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War 197 The Débacle 206 PART IV. THE END OF THE CENTURY The Evolution of American Caricature 231 The Third French Republic 236 General European Affairs 245 Thomas Nast 255 The American Political Campaigns of 1880 and 1884 269 The Influence of Journalism 278 Years of Turbulence 289 American Parties and Platforms 309 The Spanish-American War 330 The Boer War and the Dreyfus Case 342 The Men of To-day 355 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE What It Is and What Is It? Frontispiece French Invasion of England 3 Nelson at the Battle of the Nile (Gillray) 5 Bonaparte after Landing (Gillray) 6 John Bull Taking a Luncheon (Gillray) 8 French Consular Triumvirate (Gillray) 11 Capture of the Danish Ships (Gillray) 14 The Broad-Bottom Administration (Gillray) 16 Pacific Overtures (Gillray) 19 The Great Coronation Procession (Gillray) 21 Napoleon and Pitt (Gillray) 23 Armed Heroes (Gillray) 25 The Handwriting on the Wall (Gillray) 27 The Double-Faced Napoleon (German cartoon) 29 The Two Kings of Terror (Rowlandson) 31 The King of Brobdingnag and Gulliver (Gillray) 33 Napoleon's Burden (German cartoon) 36 The French Gingerbread Baker (Gillray) 38 The Devil and Napoleon (French cartoon) 39 The Consultation (French cartoon) 41 The Corsican Top in Full Flight 45 Napoleon in the Valley of the Shadow of Death (Gillray) 47 The Spider's Web (Volk) 48 The Partition of the Map 49 Napoleon's Plight (French cartoon) 50 The Signature of Abdication (Cruikshank) 52 The Allies' Oven (French cartoon) 54 The New Robinson Crusoe (German cartoon) 55 Napoleon Caged (French cartoon) 56 Restitution 58 Adjusting the Balance 60 John Bull's New Batch of Ships (Charles) 62 Russia as Mediator (Charles) 63 The Cossack Bite (Charles) 63 John Bull and the Alexandrians (Charles) 64 John Bull's Troubles (Charles) 64 The Order of the Extinguishers (French cartoon) 67 Proudhon 68 Digging the Grave 69 Le Poire (Philipon) 70 The Pious Monarch 74 The Great Nut-Cracker 75 Enfoncé Lafayette (Daumier) 77 The Ship of State in Peril 79 The Pit of Taxation (Grandville) 81 The Question of Divorce (Daumier) 83 The Resuscitation (Grandville) 84 Louis Philippe as Bluebeard (Grandville) 85 Barbarism and Cholera Invading 89 The Raid 89 Mayeux (Traviès) 91 Robert Macaire (Daumier) 93 Extinguished! 94 Louis Philippe as Cain 95 Laughing John-Crying John 96 The Wellington Boot 99 The Land of Liberty 103 England's Admonition (Leech) 104 The Napoleon of Peace 105 The Sea-Serpent of 1848 107 Europe in 1830 109 Honoré Daumier (Benjamin) 112 The Evolution of John Bull 115 Joseph Prudhomme (Daumier) 116 The Only Authorised Lamps (Vernier) 120 Italian Cartoon of '48 121 Napoleon le Petit (Vernier) 122 The New Siamese Twins 123 Louis Napoleon and Madame France 124 The Proclamation (Gill) 125 Split Crow in the Crimea 126 Bursting of the Russian Bubble 130 General Février Turned Traitor (Leech) 131 Rochefort and His Lantern 133 Brothers in Arms 134 An American Cartoon on the Crimean War 136 Theatrical Programme 138 The British Lion's Vengeance (Tenniel) 139 The French Porcupine (Leech) 141 Bank-Oh's Ghost, 1837 144 Balaam and Balaam's Ass 144 New Map of the United States 145 The Steeplechase for 1844 147 Uncle Sam's Taylorifics 150 The Mexican Commander 151 Defense of the California Bank 153 The Presidential Foot Race 153 Presidential Campaign of '56 154 No Higher Law 155 The Fugitive Slave Law 157 The Great Disunion Serpent 158 Rough and Ready Locomotive Against the Field 160 Sauce for Goose and Gander 162 Peace (Nast) 164 Virginia Pausing 166 Civil War Envelopes 167 Long Abe 168 The Promissory Note 169 The Great Tight Rope Feat 170 At the Throttle 171 The Expert Bartender 172 The Southern Confederacy a Fact 173 The Brighter Prospect 174 "Why Don't you Take It?" 175 The Old Bull Dog on the Right Track 176 Little Mac in his Great Act 178 The Grave of the Union 180 The Abolition Catastrophe 181 The Blockade 182 Miscegenation 183 The Confederacy in Petticoats 184 Uncle Sam's Menagerie 185 Protecting Free Ballot 186 The Nation at Lincoln's Bier (Tenniel) 187 Figures from a Triumph 189 The Diagnosis (Cham) 190 The Egerean Nymph (Daumier) 191 Paul and Virginia (Gill) 192 The First Conscript of France (Gill) 193 The Situation (Gill) 195 Louis Blanc (Gill) 197 Rival Arbiters (Tenniel) 198 The Man Who Laughs (Gill) 199 The Man Who Thinks (Gill) 200 "To Be or Not to Be" (Gill) 201 Achilles in Retreat (Gill) 202 The President of Rhodes (Daumier) 203 A Tempest in a Glass of Water (Gill) 204 A Duel to the Death (Tenniel) 205 September 4th, 1870 206 Her Baptism of Fire (Tenniel) 207 André Gill 208 The Marquis de Galliffet (Willette) 209 The History of a Reign (Daumier) 210 "This has Killed That" (Daumier) 211 The Mousetrap and its Victims (Daumier) 211 Prussia Annexes Alsace (Cham) 213 Britannia's Sympathy (Cham) 214 Adieu (Cham) 215 Souvenirs and Regrets (Aranda) 216 The Napoleon Mountebanks (Hadol) 217 Prussia Introducing the New Assembly (Daumier) 219 "Let us Eat the Prussian" (Gill) 220 Design for a New Handbell (Daumier) 222 Germany's Farewell 223 Bismarck the First 224 Trochu-1870 225 Marshal Bazaine (Faustin) 226 Rochefort 227 The German Emperor Enters Paris (Régamey) 228 Caran D'Ache 232 Gulliver Crispi 233 Changing the Map (Gill) 234 Poor France! (Daumier) 237 The Warning (Daumier) 238 The New Year (Daumier) 239 The Root of all Evil 240 The Napoleonic Drama 241 The French Political Situation (Régamey) 243 New Crowns for Old 245 Tightening the Grip 246 Aeolus 247 "L'état, C'est Moi" 248 The Hidden Hand 249 The Irish Frankenstein 250 The Daring Duckling 251 Settling the Alabama Claims 252 Gordon Waiting at Khartoum 253 The Gratz Brown Tag to Greeley's Coat (Nast) 256 Thomas Nast 257 Labour Cap and Dinner Pail (Nast) 259 The Rag Baby (Nast) 260 The Inflation Donkey (Nast) 261 The Brains of Tammany (Nast) 262 A Popular Verdict 263 The Tattooed Columbia (Keppler) 264 Splitting the Party 265 The Headless Candidates 266 On the Down Grade 267 Forbidding the Banns (Keppler) 270 The Wake (Keppler) 272 A Common Sorrow 273 Why They Dislike Him 274 The First Tattooed Man (Gillam) 275 A German Idea of Irish Home Rule 279 The New National Sexton 280 Horatius Cleveland 281 Bernard Gillam 282 Joseph Keppler 283 The John Bull Octopus 285 The Hand of Anarchy 286 The Triple Alliance 287 A Present-Day Lesson 290 Gordon in Khartoum 291 The Spurious Parnell Letters 291 Dropping the Pilot (Tenniel) 292 L'Enfant Terrible 293 William Bluebeard 294 Chinese Native Cartoon 295 Japan in Corea 296 Business at the Deathbed 297 The Start for the China Cup 297 End of the Chinese-Japanese War 298 The Chinese Exclusion Act 299 The Great Republican Circus (Opper) 300 To the Rescue 301 A Pilgrim's Progress 302 General Boulanger 303 The Hague Peace Conference 303 A Fixture 304 Group of Modern French Caricaturists 305 The Anglo-French War Barometer 307 Rip Van Winkle Awakes 310 They're Off 311 Where am I at? (Gillam) 312 The Political Columbus (Gillam) 314 Cleveland's Map of the United States (Gillam) 315 Return of the Southern Flags (Gillam) 317 The Champion Masher (Gillam) 319 The Harrison Platform (Keppler) 320 The Chilian Affair 322 A Political Tam O'Shanter (Gillam) 324 Don Quixote Bryan and the Windmill (Victor Gillam) 325 Outing of the Anarchists 326 To the Death 327 The Great Weyler Ape 328 We are the People 329 Be Careful! It's Loaded (Victor Gillam) 331 The Safety Valve 333 The Latest War Bulletin (Hamilton) 334 Spanish Cartoons of the Spanish-American War 335 The Spanish Brute (Hamilton) 337 Spanish Cartoons of the Spanish-American War 339 The Rhodes Colossus (Sambourne) 342 The Situation in South Africa (Gillam) 343 Bloody Cartography 344 Lady Macbeth 345 The Flying Dutchman 346 Oom Paul's Favorite Pastime 347 Up against the Breastworks 348 The Napoleon of South Africa 349 Fire! 350 The Last Phase of the Dreyfus Case 350 Toward Freedom 351 The French General's Staff 352 Between Scylla and Charybdis 353 Devil's Island 354

While the impulse to satirize public men in picture is probably as old as satiric verse, if not older, the political cartoon, as an effective agent in molding public opinion, is essentially a product of modern conditions and methods. As with the campaign song, its success depends upon its timeliness, upon the ability to seize upon a critical moment, a burning question of the hour, and anticipate the outcome while public excitement is still at a white heat. But unlike satiric verse, it is dependent upon ink and paper. It cannot be transmitted orally. The doggerel verses of the Roman legions passed from camp to camp with the mysterious swiftness of an epidemic, and found their way even into the sober history of Suetonius. The topical songs and parodies of the Middle Ages migrated from town to town with the strolling minstrels, as readily as did the cycles of heroic poetry. But with caricature the case was very different. It may be that the man of the Stone Age, whom Mr. Opper has lately utilized so cleverly in a series of caricatures, was the first to draw rude and distorted likenesses of some unpopular chieftain, just as the Roman soldier of 79 A. D. scratched on the wall of his barracks in Pompeii an unflattering portrait of some martinet centurion which the ashes of Vesuvius have preserved until to-day. It is certain that the Greeks and Romans appreciated the power of ridicule latent in satiric pictures; but until the era of the printing press, the caricaturist was as one crying in a wilderness. And it is only with the modern co-operation of printing and photography that caricature has come into its full inheritance. The best and most telling cartoons are those which do not merely reflect current public opinion, but guide it. In looking back over a century of caricature, we are apt to overlook this distinction. A cartoon which cleverly illustrates some important historical event, and throws light upon the contemporary attitude of the public, is equally interesting to-day, whether it anticipated the event or was published a month afterward. But in order to influence public opinion, caricature must contain a certain element of prophecy. It must suggest a danger or point an interrogation. As an example, we may compare two famous cartoons by the English artist Gillray, "A Connoisseur Examining a Cooper" and the "King of Brobdingnag and Gulliver." In the latter, George III., in the guise of a giant, is curiously examining through his magnifying glass a Lilliputian Napoleon. There is no element of prophecy about the cartoon. It simply reflects the contemptuous attitude of the time toward Napoleon, and underestimates the danger. The other cartoon, which appeared several years earlier, shows the King anxiously examining the features of Cooper's well-known miniature of Cromwell, the great overthrower of kings. Public sentiment at that time suggested the imminence of another revolution, and the cartoon suggests a momentous question: "Will the fate of Charles I. be repeated?" In the light of history, the Gulliver cartoon is to-day undoubtedly the more interesting, but at the time of its appearance it could not have produced anything approaching the sensation of that of "a Connoisseur." Gillray's Conception of the French Invasion of England. The necessity of getting a caricature swiftly before the public has always been felt, and has given rise to some curious devices and makeshifts. In the example which we have noted as having come down from Roman times, a patriotic citizen of Pompeii could find no better medium for giving his cartoon of an important local event to the world than by scratching it upon the wall of his dwelling-house after the fashion of the modern advertisement. There was a time in the seventeenth century when packs of political playing-cards enjoyed an extended vogue. The fashion of printing cartoons upon ladies' fans and other articles of similarly intimate character was a transitory fad in England a century ago. Mr. Ackermann, a famous printer of his generation, and publisher of the greater part of Rowlandson's cartoons, adopted as an expedient for spreading political news a small balloon with an attached mechanism, which, when liberated, would drop news bulletins at intervals as it passed over field and village. In this country many people of the older generation will still remember the widespread popularity of the patriotic caricature-envelopes that were circulated during the Civil War. To-day we are so used to the daily newspaper cartoon that we do not stop to think how seriously handicapped the cartoonists of a century ago found themselves. The more important cartoons of Gillray and Rowlandson appeared either in monthly periodicals, such as the Westminster Magazine and the Oxford Magazine, or in separate sheets that sold at the prohibitive price of several shillings. In times of great public excitement, as during the later years of the Napoleonic wars, such cartoons were bought up greedily, the City vying with the aristocratic West End in their patriotic demand for them. But such times were exceptional, and the older caricaturists were obliged to let pass many interesting crises because the situations would have become already stale before the day of publication of the monthly magazines came round. With the advent of the illustrated weeklies the situation was improved, but it is only in recent times that the ideal condition has been reached, when the cabled news of yesterday is interpreted in the cartoon of to-day. Nelson at the Battle of the Nile. There is another and less specific reason why caricature had to await the advent of printing and the wider dissemination of knowledge which resulted. The successful political cartoon presupposes a certain average degree of intelligence in a nation, an awakened civic conscience, a sense of responsibility for the nation's welfare. The cleverest cartoonist would waste his time appealing to a nation of feudal vassals; he could not expect to influence a people to whom the ballot box was closed. Caricature flourishes best in an atmosphere of democracy; there is an eternal incompatibility between its audacious irreverence and the doctrine of the divine right of kings. Bonaparte 48 Hours after Landing. And yet the best type of caricature should not require a high degree of intelligence. Many clever cartoonists over-reach themselves by an excess of cleverness, appealing at best to a limited audience. Of this type are the cartoons whose point lies in parodying some famous painting or a masterpiece of literature, which, as a result, necessarily remains caviare to the general. There is a type of portrait caricature so cultured and subtle that it often produces likenesses truer to the man we know in real life than a photograph would be. A good example of this type is the familiar work of William Nicholson, whose portrait of the late Queen of England is said to have been recognized by her as one of the most characteristic pictures she had ever had taken. What appeals to the public, however, is a coarser type, a gross exaggeration of prominent features, a willful distortion, resulting in ridicule or glorification. Oftentimes the caricature degenerates into a mere symbol. We have outgrown the puerility of the pictorial pun which flourished in England at the close of the seventeenth century, when cartoonists of Gillray's rank were content to represent Lord Bute as a pair of boots, Lord North as Boreas, the north wind, and the elder Fox with the head and tail of the animal suggested by his name. Yet personification of one kind and another, and notably the personification of the nations in the shape of John Bull and Uncle Sam and the Russian Bear, forms the very alphabet of political caricature of the present day. Some of the most memorable series that have ever appeared were founded upon a chance resemblance of the subject of them to some natural object. Notable instances are Daumier's famous series of Louis Philippe represented as a pear, and Nast's equally clever, but more local, caricatures of Tweed as a money-bag. It would be interesting, if the material were accessible, to trace the development of the different personifications of England, France, and Russia, and the rest, from their first appearance in caricature, but unfortunately their earlier development cannot be fully traced. The underlying idea of representing the different nations as individuals, and depicting the great international crises in a series of allegories or parables or animal stories-a sort of pictorial ?sop's fables-dates back to the very beginning of caricature. In one of the earliest cartoons that have been preserved, England, France, and a number of minor principalities which have since disappeared from the map of Europe, are represented as playing a game of cards with some disputed island possessions as the stakes. In this case the several nations are indicated merely by heraldic emblems. The conception of John Bull was not to be evolved until a couple of centuries later. This cartoon, like the others of that time, originated in France under Louis XII. The further development of the art was decisively checked under the despotic reign of Louis XIV., and the few caricaturists of that time who had the courage to use their pencil against the king were driven to the expedient of publishing their works in Holland. John Bull taking a Luncheon. An impressive illustration of the advantage which the satirical poet has over the cartoonist lies in the fact that some of the cleverest political satire ever written, as well as the best examples of the application of the animal fable to politics, were produced in France at this very time in the fables of La Fontaine. The French Consular Triumvirate.

From Holland caricature migrated to Great Britain in the closing years of the seventeenth century-a natural result of the attention which Dutch cartoonists had bestowed upon the revolution of 1688-and there it found a fertile and congenial soil. The English had not had time to forget that they had once put the divine right of kings to the test of the executioner's block, and what little reverence still survived was not likely to afford protection for a race of imported monarchs. Moreover, as it happened, the development of English caricature was destined to be guided by the giant genius of two men, Hogarth and Gillray; and however far apart these two men were in their moral and artistic standards, they had one thing in common, a perennial scorn for the House of Hanover. Hogarth's contemptuous satire of George II. was more than echoed in Gillray's merciless attacks upon George III. The well-known cartoons of "Farmer George," and "George the Button-Maker," were but two of the countless ways in which he avenged himself upon the dull-witted king who had once acknowledged that he could not see the point of Gillray's caricatures. Although Hogarth antedates the period covered by the present articles by fully half a century, he is much too commanding a figure in the history of comic art to be summarily dismissed. The year 1720 marks the era of the so-called "bubble mania," the era of unprecedented inflation, of the South Sea Company in London, and the equally notorious Mississippi schemes of John Law in France. Popular excitement found vent in a veritable deluge of cartoons, many of which originated in Amsterdam and were reprinted in London, often with the addition of explanatory satiric verses in English. In one, Fortune is represented riding in a car driven by Folly, and drawn by personifications of the different companies responsible for the disastrous epidemic of speculation: the Mississippi, limping along on a wooden leg; the South Sea, with its foot in splints, etc. In another, we have an imaginary map of the Southern seas, representing "the very famous island of Madhead, situated in Share Sea, and inhabited by all kinds of people, to which is given the general name of Shareholders." John Law came in for a major share of the caricaturist's attention. In one picture he is represented as assisting Atlas to bear up immense globes of wind; in another, he is a "wind-monopolist," declaring, "The wind is my treasure, cushion, and foundation. Master of the wind, I am master of life, and my wind monopoly becomes straightway the object of idolatry." The windy character of the share-business is the dominant note in the cartoons of the period. Bubbles, windmills, flying kites, play a prominent part in the detail with which the background of the typical Dutch caricature was always crowded. These cartoons, displayed conspicuously in London shop windows, were not only seen by Hogarth, but influenced him vitally. His earliest known essay in political caricature is an adaptation of one of these Dutch prints, representing the wheel of Fortune, bearing the luckless and infatuated speculators high aloft. His latest work still shows the influence of Holland in the endless wealth of minute detail, the painstaking elaboration of his backgrounds, in which the most patient examination is ever finding something new. With Hogarth, the overcharged method of the Dutch school became a medium for irrepressible genius. At the hands of his followers and imitators, it became a source of obscurity and confusion. "The Capture of the Danish Ships." While Hogarth is rightly recognized as the father of English caricature, it must be remembered that his best work was done on the social rather than on the political side. Even his most famous political series, that of "The Elections," is broadly generalized. It is not in any sense campaign literature, but an exposition of contemporary manners. And this was always Hogarth's aim. He was by instinct a realist, endowed with a keen sense of humor-a quality in which many a modern realist is deficient. He satirized life as he saw it, the good and the bad together, with a frankness which at times was somewhat brutal, like the frankness of Fielding and of Smollett the frankness of the age they lived in. It was essentially an outspoken age, robust and rather gross; a red-blooded age, nurtured on English beef and beer; a jovial age that shook its sides over many a broad jest, and saw no shame in open allusion to the obvious and elemental facts of physical life. Judged by the standards of his day, there is little offense in Hogarth's work; even when measured by our own, he is not deliberately licentious. On the contrary, he set an example of moderation which his successors would have done well to imitate. He realized, as the later caricaturists of his century did not, that the great strength of pictorial satire lies in ridicule rather than in invective; that the subtlest irony often lies in a close adherence to truth, where riotous and unrestrained exaggeration defeats its own end. Just as in the case of "Joseph Andrews," Fielding's creative instinct got the upper hand of the parodist, so in much of Hogarth's work one feels that the caricaturist is forced to yield place to the realistic artist, the student of human life, carried away by the interest of the story he has to tell. His chief gift to caricature is his unprecedented development of the narrative quality in pictorial art. He pointed a road along which his imitators could follow him only at a distance. "Bonaparte and his English Friends-The Broad Bottom Administration." With the second half of the eighteenth century there began an era of great license in the political press, an era of bitter vituperation and vile personal abuse. Hogarth was one of the chief sufferers. After holding aloof from partisan politics for nearly half a century, he published, in 1762, his well-known cartoon attacking the ex-minister, Pitt. All Europe is represented in flames, which are spreading to Great Britain in spite of the efforts of Lord Bute, aided by his Highlanders, to extinguish them. Pitt is blowing upon the flames, which are being fed by the Duke of Newcastle from a barrow full of Monitors and North Britons, two scurrilous papers of the day. The bitterness with which Hogarth was attacked in retaliation and the persistence of his persecutors resulted, as was generally believed at the time, in a broken heart and his death in 1764. An amazing increase in the number of caricatures followed the entry of Lord Bute's ministry into power. They were distinguished chiefly by their poor execution and gross indecency. As early as 1762, the Gentleman's Magazine, itself none too immaculate, complains that "Many of the representations that have lately appeared in the shops are not only reproachful to the government, but offensive to common-sense; they discover a tendency to inflame, without a spark of fire to light their own combustion." The state of society in England was at this time notoriously immoral and licentious. It was a period of hard living and hard drinking. The well-known habits of such public figures as Sheridan and Fox are eminent examples. The spirit of gambling had become a mania, and women had caught the contagion as well as men. Nowhere was the profligacy of the times more clearly shown than in the looseness of public social functions, such as the notorious masquerade balls, which a contemporary journal, the Westminster Magazine, seriously decried as "subversive of virtue and every noble and domestic point of honor." The low standards of morals and want of delicacy are revealed in the extravagance of women's dress, the looseness of their speech. It was an age when women of rank, such as Lady Buckingham and Lady Archer, were publicly threatened by an eminent judge with exposure on the pillory for having systematically enticed young men and robbed them at their faro tables, and afterward found themselves exposed in the pillory of popular opinion in scurrilous cartoons from shop windows all over London. Pacific Overtures.